e., (1) surface of mucosa, (2) mucosal layer, (3) submucosal layer and muscle layers demonstrated on intraoral US [19] (Fig. 3). So, I would like to cite our study regarding the clinical significance of the sonographic ISRIB cost feature of the three-layer structure for evaluation of tumor invasion of superficial carcinoma of the tongue. From January 2005 to September 2006, 8 patients with superficial carcinoma of the tongue (squamous cell carcinoma, tumor thickness of 5 mm or less) were enrolled in the study. The patients consisted of 5 males and 3 females and the

age ranged from 44 to 71 years, with a mean age of 63 years. The average duration between the preoperative intraoral US and the tumor resection was 6 days (range: 2–13 days). Preoperative intraoral US examination was performed using a small “hockey stick” probe. We also used an acoustic coupling polymer gel with a thickness of 3 mm or 10 mm in order to obtain fine image

quality. A side-by-side comparison was performed between the sonographic findings and the histopathological findings. The histopathological examination was performed on all patients. As a result of the study, superficial carcinoma was clearly interpreted as a thickened mucosal layer in every patient on intraoral US. Additionally, an ill-defined hypoechoic area was also observed under the thickened mucosal layer. Histopathologically, inflammatory cellular SCR7 datasheet infiltration was observed corresponding to the hypoechoic area. In some instances, the blood flow signal was observed at the bottom of the thickened www.selleck.co.jp/products/MLN-2238.html mucosal layer

on power Doppler imaging. We consider that the blood flow signal at the bottom of the thickened mucosal layer might be one of the peculiar findings suggesting superficial carcinoma. In conclusion, the sonographic feature of the three-layer structure of tongue mucosa demonstrated on intraoral US is useful to estimate the depth of tumor invasion of superficial carcinoma of the tongue because the increasing depth of tumor invasion and the microvascular proliferation caused by neoplastic growth might determine proximity to blood vessels and lymphatics, thus facilitating the tumor’s ability to metastasize [18]. The use of US in the differential diagnosis of periapical lesions was introduced by Cotti et al. in 2002 [20] and 2003 [21]. Since then, very few studies have been undertaken to validate their findings. They defined cystic lesion as a hypoechoic well-contoured cavity filled with fluids with no evidence of internal vascularity on power Doppler imaging, and granuloma as a hyperechoic or mixed hyper- and hypoechoic areas with a rich vascular supply on power Doppler imaging. Gundappa et al. [22] reported that US demonstrated a high diagnostic accuracy in the differentiation of periapical granulomas and radicular cysts with a side-by-side comparison between US and hisopathology.

Kondo and Hanamura [4] analyzed the mesiodistal crown diameters of the maxillary incisors and first molars in 301 Japanese individuals, and examined the existence of compensatory tooth size interaction between the early-developed central incisor and the later-developed

lateral incisor. The central incisor and first molar in the group that had reduced lateral incisors were not smaller than those in the other groups who had normal or large lateral incisors. Thus, the reduced lateral PS-341 supplier incisor did not always lead to the reduction of the other teeth. The central incisor was larger in the group who had reduced lateral incisors than in the group who had normal-sized lateral incisors. This result indicates that the size of the lateral incisor was likely to reflect a compensatory response related to a large central incisor. Fluctuating asymmetry

in size of the lateral incisor was greater in the reduced lateral incisor group than in the normal lateral INCB024360 in vitro incisor group. Compensatory growth of the lateral incisors was noted in those groups where the lateral incisors showed strong asymmetry in their size and also in the group who displayed reduced lateral incisors. It was suggested by the authors that the compensatory growth was related to right and left side asymmetry in the lateral incisor. Correlations among teeth in the same tooth class, and correlations between right and left sides of the same tooth, were relatively high but the correlations among other tooth classes were low. It was thought that the reduction and compensatory growth of the lateral incisor were limited within the same tooth class, but rarely influenced the whole tooth row. In conclusion, it is proposed that reduced maxillary lateral incisors grow to compensate for the size of the adjacent central incisor in some cases, but their reduction also reflects reduction of the whole dentition in other cases (Fig. 3, Table 4). Kavanagh next et al. [50] constructed an inhibitory cascade model by uncovering the activator-inhibitor logic of sequential tooth development. Their

hypothesis was based on experiments of tooth development in the laboratory mouse and supports the important role of epigenetic influences during odontogenesis. Mouse molars develop sequentially and the dental lamina, extending posteriorly from the developing first molar, gives rise to the second molar. When the second molar was cultured apart from dental lamina of the first molar, the second molar developed faster and grew larger than in the intact situation. These authors proposed that the mesial molars inhibit development of the distal molars. This model explains the relative size of mandibular molars by a balance of inhibitor and activator substances, and predicts evolutionary patterns in the dentition. The model has been tested from both paleontological [51] and [52] and comparative anatomical [53] perspectives. In a study of delayed erupted maxillary first molars, Rasmussen used the term “9-year-molar” [54].

“
“Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a fungal disease of increasing significance for small-grain crops worldwide (McMullen, Jones, & Gallemberg, 1997). It is mainly caused by members of the Fusarium graminearum species complex (Fg complex) (teleomorph: Gibberella zeae) ( Goswami & Kistler, 2004). FHB inoculum survives in crop debris and infects wheat crops from flowering to grain filling stages when weather conditions are favourable ( McMullen

et al., 1997). Even though yield losses are associated with reduced kernel plumpness and weight, the fungus produces mycotoxins that may accumulate to unacceptable levels, making harvested grain and their by-products unsuitable for human and animal consumption find more ( Creppy, 2002). Current integrated management practices include crop rotations, resistant wheat varieties and fungicide applications that help to prevent and/or reduce fungal infection and subsequent mycotoxin production ( Edwards, 2004). Increasing awareness of Fusarium mycotoxins, especially those from the trichothecene group, such as deoxynivalenol (DON), occurred in recent years

with the resurgence and consideration of FHB as a major threat to food security ( Goswami and Kistler, 2004 and van Egmond see more et al., 2007). The World Health Organization (WHO) regards DON as teratogen, neurotoxin, and immunosuppressant and trichothecenes in general have been associated with chronic and fatal intoxication of humans and animals through consumption of contaminated food and feed ( Rotter, Prelusky, & Pestka, 1996). Hence, urgent Dichloromethane dehalogenase measures such as continuous monitoring and regulation of maximum mycotoxin levels in food products and commodities have been set in several countries ( van Egmond et al., 2007). Surveys on Fusarium mycotoxins in small-grain

cereals and their by-products are frequently conducted in the major production regions of the world such as North America and Europe ( Creppy, 2002 and van Egmond et al., 2007). Conversely, information in South America is relatively scarce and previous evidence had placed DON as the main Fusarium toxin detected in wheat and by-products in Argentina ( Dalcero et al., 1997 and Lori et al., 2003) and Uruguay ( Piñeiro, Dawson, & Costarrica, 1996). In Brazil, current information also places DON as the main target toxin in analyses of commercial wheat grain, flour and by-products ( Calori-Domingues et al., 2007, Furlong et al., 1995 and Malmann et al., 2003). Although risk factors related to environment and host genotype are known for playing a role in determining mycotoxin accumulation in grains, genetic profile of the regional populations, especially the type of toxin produced by the fungus (fungal chemotype), is critical for assessing the regional risk of Fusarium mycotoxins in the food chain ( Goswami and Kistler, 2004 and Ward et al., 2008).

, 2009 and Kovacik and Repcak, 2008). Coumarin was detected and quantified in guava, Selleckchem Trametinib passion

fruit, surinam cherry by-products and mango pulp with values ranging from 57.39 to 102.49 μg/g d.b. ( Table 5), results not reported so far in the literature. Coumarin was not detected in the other fruits and by-products samples. The fruits and by-products analyzed in this study were compared to coumarin levels in Lamiaceace family plants and cinnamon bark, which are known to have high concentrations of coumarin and are widely used in traditional medicine and horticulture (such as lavender, salvia, rosemary, oregano, and basil). Levels of coumarin ranged from 14.3 to 276.9 μg/mg dried weight for Lamiaceace family plants, with the genera Lavandula and Salvia showing the highest content ( Lee et al., 2011) and as high as 29.4 mg/g d.b. for ethanolic extract of cinnamon bark ( Ho, Chang, & Chang, 2013). One can see that the content of coumarin in the by-products and pulp observed even if present in lower quantities than cinnamon bark is still considerably higher than other commercially available sources such as Lamiaceace family plants. Consequently,

these fruit by-products and pulp analyzed in this study can be regarded as a rich natural source this website of coumarin. Overall the fruit by-products showed higher (P < 0.05) levels of β-carotene and lycopene, as well as anthocyanins and yellow flavonoids when compared to the fruit pulps studied. Regarding the considerable amounts of anthocyanins, yellow flavonoids and phenolic compounds, our results indicate promising perspectives for the exploitation of these non-traditional tropical fruit species and their by-products with considerable levels of nutrients. The considerable amount of resveratrol and coumarin for some of the fruits and by-products included in this study are likely to draw attention to these species and most importantly to their by-products as potential commodities. Guava and surinam cherry by-products presented

resveratrol in their constitutions and can be considered a rich source of this compound. Similarly, for coumarin, passion fruit, guava and surinam cherry by-products and mango pulp can be considered rich natural sources of coumarin. The data obtained in this study add valuable information Tangeritin to current knowledge of the nutritional properties of tropical fruits and their by-products, especially if one considers the broad spectrum of properties of the compounds identified. This study showed that agro-industrial by-products are good sources of bioactive compounds and the exploitation of these abundant and low-cost renewable resources could be anticipated for the pharmaceutical and food industries with opportunities of developing new nutraceutical and/or pharmaceutical products, reduction of industrial waste and cost, and ultimately providing a positive economic and environmental impact.

A study found that immature beans (Craig, Franca, & Oliveira, 2012) can be differentiated from mature (ripe) beans, using diffuse reflectance infrared spectroscopy. Direct injection electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry has also been used (Amorim et al., 2009) to distinguish between immature, ripe and overripe beans, by measuring methanol extracts of green and roasted beans. The main differences between the beans were in the fatty acid content and the drop in di- and trimeric chlorogenic acids (CGAs) signal intensities. Slight differences have also been found (Jham, Velikova, Muller, Nikolova-Damyanova,

& Cecon, 2001) in lipid content between immature and ripe Enzalutamide coffee beans. It has been found that the chlorogenic acid content in unprocessed coffee beans decreases with maturation of the coffee fruit, and that there is difference between the ripe (pink) and fully ripe fruit (Koshiro et al., 2007). Elemental composition has also been investigated (Valentin & Watling, 2013), but no differences were found with respect to degrees of ripeness. The aim of the presented work was to search for Atezolizumab chemical structure differences in chemical composition between coffee beans of different

degrees of ripeness, using wet-processed green coffee beans from a single origin that are free from defects. The chosen stages of ripeness were all in the range of normal commercial coffee qualities. A range of analytical methods were optimised and developed to analyse selected parameters: chlorogenic acid profile, volatile profile, caffeine, sucrose content and high-molecular weight (HMW) part of the size exclusion chromatogram. Green coffee beans were obtained from the Finca SHANTI

farm of Munaipata Café de Altura S.A., Coroico, Bolivia (16° 13’ 05” S, 67° .43’ 25” W, elevation 1700-1880 m). The coffee plants had been exposed to identical soil and sunshine conditions. Fruits from two varieties of Arabica, Tipica and Catuai, were harvested at three different stages of ripeness, namely unripe, half-ripe Calpain and ripe, as shown in Fig. 1. Unripe fruit were those that had just started to show a red colour on an otherwise mostly green fruit, half-ripe fruit were the opposite and were mostly completely light red in colour with some remaining green spots and ripe fruit were completely deep red in colour. The raw coffee beans were obtained from the fruits by the wet-process post-harvest treatment. All samples were free of defects. Methanol and acetonitrile were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich and were of HPLC gradient grade, sodium phosphate and phosphoric acid were reagent grade from Sigma-Aldrich (Buchs SG, Switzerland) and formic acid was from Fluka eluent additive LC-MS grade. Caffeine and sucrose standards were obtained from Fluka, 3-caffeoyl quinic acid (3-CQA), 4-caffeoyl quinic acid (4-CQA) and 5-feruoyl quinic acid (5-FQA) from Sigma-Aldrich and 5-caffeoyl quinic acid (5-CQA) from Acros Organic (Geel, Belgium).

Permethrin, a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide, was selected for the previous aggregate SHEDS-Multimedia model application in Zartarian et al. (2012) because it is the most commonly used pyrethroid pesticide and the first pyrethroid reviewed under FQPA. This paper extends that research, applying SHEDS-Multimedia to a cumulative seven pyrethroids case study (permethrin, cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, allethrin, resmethrin, deltamethrin, and esfenvalerate), including variability analyses for key pathways and chemicals, and Ibrutinib model evaluation results. To select the seven pyrethroid pesticides for this case study, we used the 2001–2002

Residential Exposure Joint Venture (REJV) consumer pesticide product use survey provided to the U.S. EPA (Jacobs et al., 2003) and NHANES biomarker data (Barr et al., 2010Table 1). To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive cumulative exposure assessment using SHEDS-Multimedia combined with publicly available datasets. The objectives of this case study were to: (1) quantify children’s pyrethroid exposures from residential and dietary routes, identifying major chemicals and find more pathways; (2) provide reliable input data and methods for cumulative risk assessment; and (3) evaluate SHEDS-Multimedia

using NHANES biomarker data. The SHEDS-Multimedia technical manuals describe in detail the model algorithms, methodologies, and input and output capabilities (Glen et al., 2010 and Xue et al., 2010b). SHEDS-Multimedia is comprised of both a residential module (SHEDS-Residential version 4.0; Glen

et al., 2010, Isaacs et al., 2010a and Zartarian et al., 2008), and a dietary module (SHEDS-Dietary version 1.0; Xue et al., 2010a, Xue et al., 2010b, Xue et al., 2012 and Isaacs et al., 2010b) linked by a methodology illustrated in Fig. 1. This case study quantifies population cumulative exposures for 3–5 year olds (one of the EPA recommended age groups in U.S. EPA, 2005) from both dietary ingestion and nine residential application scenarios of seven pyrethroids. The seven pyrethroids were selected based on residential usage patterns and degradation to the common metabolites, 3-PBA and heptaminol DCCA (Barr et al., 2010). For this multiple pyrethroids case study, nine residential exposure scenarios were selected based on analyses of the REJV data (Jacobs et al., 2003), including indoor crack and crevice (aerosol and liquid), indoor flying insect killer (aerosol), indoor fogger (broadcast), lawn (granular – push spreader and liquid – hand wand), pet treatment (liquid and spot-on), and vegetable garden (dust, powder). Model input values for chemical-specific and non-specific data inputs for these seven pyrethroids were mined from peer-reviewed publications, OPP’s Residential Exposure Standard Operating Procedures (U.S. EPA, 2012), recommendations by OPP’s FIFRA SAP, EPA’s Exposure Factors Handbook and Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook (U.S. EPA, 1997 and U.S.

Second, in line with the LTM memory account, we document the role of experienced conflict on encoding of LTM traces.

The cost asymmetry arises only when subjects have experienced conflict from the dominant task while performing the non-dominant task (Exp. 1). Third, we also examined the role of interruptions in determining the cost asymmetry. Consistent with the idea that interruptions have a structural effect (i.e., in terms of enforcing an updating process during recovery from the interruption), we demonstrated that the cost asymmetry could not be explained in terms of task-specific associative mappings (Experiment 3). Also, consistent with the structural hypothesis we demonstrated that the type, the attentional control demands, or the duration of interruptions have at best very

small effects on the cost asymmetry. Dasatinib concentration In line with our general model this suggests that what matters is not the interruption activity itself, but simply the fact that interruptions elicit a working-memory updating process. Fourth, an important aspect of the current work is that the interruption paradigm, combined with the exogenous/endogenous check details tasks provides a particularly clear empirical distinction between the updating mode (post-interruption trials) and the maintenance mode (exogenous-task maintenance trials). In standard task-switching situations it seems particularly difficult to bring subjects to adopt a pure maintenance mode, as the mere possibility of task switching may induce a tendency to update even on no-switch trials (e.g., Monsell & Mizon, 2006). A clear empirical distinction between updating and maintenance allows examining context and individual differences factors that could selectively affect these two modes of control and how people negotiate between them. We are currently using this paradigm to test

the hypothesis that older adults are “chronic updaters” (Mayr, 2001 and Spieler very et al., 2006). Our initial results indicate that while young adults exhibit virtually no trace of conflict from the endogenous task in exogenous-task maintenance trials (e.g., as in the exo/endo condition in Fig. 2), old adults continue to exhibit substantial costs and conflict effects across maintenance trials. This is consistent with the hypothesis that old adults find it difficult to revert to a full maintenance mode following an interruption. Combined, our results provide a powerful challenge to models that emphasize the clash between the immediate past and the present as the main driver of task-selection costs. In the following we discuss both implications of our results, as well as remaining challenges. We found that adopting an exogenous attentional setting after an interruption produces a larger RT cost than adopting an endogenous attentional setting. As noted, this pattern is similar to the switch-cost asymmetry found for other dominant vs. non-dominant task combinations in traditional task-switching situations.

At the time of our surveys the time since clearfelling varied from 1 to 15 years. Table 1 details the date surveys were carried out. The area of clearfells

was estimated using digitized maps and varied between 0.9 and 35.2 ha. We compared the rates of native tree regeneration on these clearfelled sites Selleck Olaparib to nearby areas which had not been previously planted with conifers (control sites). We surveyed 6 control sites. The control sites were typically situated less than 1 km from the study sites. At a number of the sites former agricultural use had resulted in considerable alteration to the vegetation and the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Therefore we broadly classified all sites as either upland moorland (UM), upland improved farmland (IF) or PAWS (P) based on the present land-use of the control sites or the land-use prior to afforestation for the clearfelled sites. Both the control and the clearfelled sites were fenced to exclude stock. Capreolus capreolus (roe deer) and Cervus elaphus (red deer) were present at the Clashindarroch and Lake District sites. Only roe deer occurred selleck chemical in Bin forest. Deer control was practiced by the Forestry Commission at all sites. Sites were surveyed using 2 × 2 m temporary quadrats placed along equally spaced line transects. The

separation S   (in m) between transects and between quadrats on transects was computed by the formula ( Harmer and Morgan, 2009): S=100A/n, where A is the site area (ha) and n the number of quadrats (detailed in Table 1). Quadrats on forest track margins were omitted. In total we surveyed 1140 quadrats. Within each quadrat the species, number and height of all regenerating juveniles (defined here as either seedlings with a height ⩽50 cm or saplings with a height >50 cm) were noted. The height of saplings was measured with an extensible folding

rule. The incidence of leading stems damaged by browsing 6-phosphogluconolactonase on trees <2 m tall was noted. No attempt was made to distinguish the different birch, oak and willow spp. The distance to the nearest seed source (defined as a mature tree) was measured in the field for each tree species (all the sampled plots lay within 250 m of a native seed source). Within each quadrat we recorded the percentage of quadrat area beneath the canopy of each vascular plant species (as 2 or more species can overlap, this can result in a total vegetation cover of more than 100%) as well as the percentage cover of decaying woody debris (stumps, fallen logs and brash). Soil samples were taken from each quadrat and the pH was measured electrometrically using a soil–water paste. We were interested in the effect of brash on regeneration density so in sites that had been recently clearfelled (U6a, F2 and F4) a transect with equally spaced quadrats was oriented along a windrow and, parallel to this, another transect along the adjacent area (interrow) between the windrows.

Both substances are known to possess excellent antimicrobial

activities. CHX is a cationic bis-biguanide with good efficacy against several gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria found in endodontic infections 7 and 8. Its antibacterial effects are likely to be related to the induction of damage to the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane and precipitation of FK228 intracellular constituents (31). Although some may claim for higher concentrations of CHX, in vitro antibacterial studies suggest that even lower concentrations may perform equally well (8); 0.12% CHX is widely used as a mouthrinse and has good tissue compatibility (32). Further studies are required to evaluate whether a higher concentrated CHX solution may offer better clinical performance. NaOCl has a broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, rapidly killing vegetative and spore-forming bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses (33). Candidate endodontic pathogens are highly susceptible to NaOCl 7 and 8. This substance purportedly exerts its antibacterial effect by inducing the irreversible oxidation of sulfhydryl groups of essential bacterial enzymes but may also have deleterious effects on bacterial DNA and membrane-associated activities (31). The choice for a 2.5% NaOCl solution was based on the fact that

no significant differences in intracanal antibacterial effects have been observed when comparing it with higher NaOCl concentrations (4). Antimicrobial effectiveness is surely the most important property required for an irrigant solution to be used during treatment of teeth with apical periodontitis. The Selleck BLU9931 results of the present clinical study show that, from a microbiological point of view,

it makes no difference to use NaOCl or CHX. This is further reinforced by the findings that both NaOCl and CHX exhibit no significant effects on LPS (16). Therefore, other properties should then be considered when choosing one or the other as the irrigant. CHX but not NaOCl has Rucaparib nmr substantivity to dentin, which provides CHX with residual antimicrobial effects for days to weeks 34 and 35. However, NaOCl but not CHX possesses a soft-tissue–dissolving ability, which may help clean the root canal (6). To take advantage of the properties of both substances, some authors have recommended a combined use, with NaOCl being used throughout instrumentation followed by a final rinse with CHX, and good results have been reported in terms of negative bacterial cultures (36). Although an overall significant reduction in bacterial levels occurred after chemomechanical preparation, 18 of 30 (60%) cases treated with NaOCl and 9 of 17 (53%) irrigated with chlorhexidine were still positive for the presence of bacteria as detected by broad-range PCR. These molecular findings are very similar to those of a previous culture study that reported positive cultures in 62.5% and 50% of the cases treated with NaOCl and CHX, respectively (15).

1% crystal violet, and the viral plaques were counted. For the 96-h assays and learn more for experiments using recombinant VACV-WR expressing mutated F13L, 1% 2-methylcellulose was added to the medium at 0 h. The percentage of inhibition of plaque formation was calculated as follows: 100 − [(mean number of plaques in test × 100)/(mean number of plaques in control)]. The EC50 values (effective concentration of drug required to inhibit 50% of virus replication) were derived from the plots. In some experiments, cytopathic effect reduction assays were conducted to measure the effective concentration

of compound that inhibited 50% of the virus induced CPE. BSC-40 monolayers were seeded in 96-well plates at 1 × 104 cells per well in 180 μl of growth media. ST-246 was added directly to the assay plates at 24 concentrations (0.001–5 μM) using the HP D300 digital titration instrument (Hewlett Packard, Corvallis, OR). Cell monolayers were infected with wild-type vaccinia virus or the vaccinia virus recombinants containing the D217N amino acid substitution using an amount of virus that would cause 95% CPE at 3 days post-infection. The assay was terminated at 3 days post-infection by fixing the cells in 5% glutaraldehyde solution and the amount of CPE was visualized by staining the monolayers with 0.1% crystal

violet. Virus-induced CPE were quantified by measuring absorbance at 570 nm. I BET 762 The EC50 values were calculated by fitting the data to a four-parameter logistic model Amobarbital to generate dose–response curve using XLfit 4.1 (IBDS, Emeryville, CA). Monolayers of BSC-40 cells (1 × 106 cells/well) were infected with 200 PFUs of the recombinant viruses CTGV-βGal or VACV-WR-βGal

and cells were either treated with 0.01, 0.02 or 0.05 μM ST-246 or with 0.05% DMSO (control). At 48 h post-infection, the monolayers were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, washed twice with PBS 1× and incubated 18 h at room temperature with a solution containing 0.4 mg/ml X-Gal, 4 mM potassium ferrocyanide, 4 mM potassium ferricyanide, and 2 mM MgCl2 (Sanes et al., 1986). The sites of enzyme activity were detected through the visualization of blue viral plaques. For measurement of β-galactosidase activity, the monolayers were infected and treated with ST-246 as described above, and after 48 h the cells were processed as described (Chakrabarti et al., 1985). Cellular extracts were mixed vigorously with chloroform/SDS, and incubated with 4 mg/ml ONPG [O-nitrophenyl-B-d-galactopyranoside] until a light yellow color was developed. The samples were quantified at A420nm. BSC-40 cells grown in 6-well plates (1 × 106 cells/well) were infected with 50 PFU of CTGV or VACV-WR and either treated with 0.05% DMSO (control) or with different concentrations of ST-246. The plates were incubated tilted at a 5° angle for 3–4 days at 34.6 °C and then stained with 0.1% crystal violet. Comet tail formation in vehicle-treated group and ST-246 treated cells was compared by visual inspection.