Of these patients 35 received a significant urological diagnosis, including 12 (17.4%) urological malignancies, while 34 (49.3%) still had no diagnosis. Limitations include the possibility of missing pathology.

Conclusions: Almost 50% of patients presenting with visible hematuria will have a diagnosis. Therefore, all cases of visible hematuria require full standard investigations. Patients with no diagnosis can be discharged from followup. Recurrent visible hematuria after full initial negative findings requires repeat full standard investigations because 11.6% will learn more have malignant pathology.”
“Methuselah

(Mth) is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) associated with longevity in Drosophila melanogaster. Previously, Stunted (Sun) was identified as a peptide agonist of Mth. Here, we identify two additional activators of Mth signaling: Drosophila Sex Peptide

(SP) and a novel peptide (Serendipitous Peptide Activator of Mth, YH25448 order SPAM). Minimal functional sequences and key residues were identified from Sun and SPAM by studying truncation and alanine-scanning mutations. These peptide agonists share little sequence homology and illustrate the promiscuity of Mth for activation. mth mutants exhibit no defects in behaviors controlled by SP, casting doubt on the biological significance of Mth activation by any of these agonists, and illustrating the difficulty in applying in vitro studies to their relevance in vivo. Future studies of Mth ligands will help further our understanding of the functional interaction Rolziracetam of agonists and GPCRs.”
“The neuropeptide arginine vasopressin (AVP) exerts a modulatory role on hippocampal excitability through vasopressin VIA and V-1B receptors. However, the origin and mode of termination of the AVP innervation of the hippocampus remain unknown. We have used light and electron microscopy to trace the origin, distribution

and synaptic relationships of AVP-immuno-positive fibres and nerve terminals in the rat hippocampus. Immuno-positive fibres were present in all areas (CA1-3, dentate gyrus) of the whole septo-temporal extent of the hippocampus; they had the highest density in the CA2 region, strongly increasing in density towards the ventral hippocampus. Two types of fibres were identified, both establishing synaptic junctions. Type A had large varicosities packed with immuno-positive large-granulated peptidergic vesicles and few small clear vesicles forming type I synaptic junctions with pyramidal neuron dendrites, dendritic spines and with axonal spines. Type B had smaller varicosities containing mostly small clear vesicles and only a few large-granulated vesicles and established type II synaptic junctions mainly with interneuron dendrites. The AVP-positive axons in stratum oriens appeared to follow and contact metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 alpha (mGluR1 alpha)-immuno-positive interneuron dendrites.

Several studies have found that RRF rather than overall adequacy ( as estimated

from total small solute removal rates) is an essential marker of patient and, to a lesser extent, technique survival during chronic peritoneal dialysis (PD) therapy. In addition, RRF is associated with a reduction in blood pressure and left ventricular hypertrophy, increased sodium removal and improved fluid status, lower serum beta(2)-microglobulin, phosphate and uric acid levels, higher serum hemoglobin and bicarbonate levels, better nutritional status, a more favorable lipid profile, decreased circulating inflammatory markers, and lower risk for peritonitis in PD. As compared with conventional hemodialysis, PD is associated with a slower QNZ solubility dmso decrease in RRF. This highlights the usefulness of

strategies oriented to preserve both RRF and the long-term viability of the peritoneal membrane. Several factors contributing to the loss of RRF have been identified and should be avoided. Renoprotective drugs and new glucose-sparing, more biocompatible PD regimes may prove useful tools to preserve RRF and peritoneal membrane function in the near future.”
“The selleck screening library role of nitric oxide (NO) in cardiac contractility is complex and controversial. Several NO donors have been reported to cause positive or negative inotropism. NO can bind to guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP production and activating PKG. NO Inositol monophosphatase 1 may also directly S-nitrosylate cysteine residues of specific

proteins. We used the isolated rat heart preparation to test the hypothesis that the differential inotropic effects depend on the degree of NO production and the signaling recruited. SNAP (S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine), a NO donor, increased contractility at 0.1, 1 and 10 M. This effect was independent of phospholamban phosphorylation, was not affected by PKA inhibition with H-89 (N-[2((p-bromocinnamyl)amino)ethyl]-5-isoquinolinesulfonamide), but it was abolished by the radical scavenger Tempol (4-hydroxy-[2,2,4,4]-tetramethyl-piperidine-1-oxyl). However, at 100 mu M SNAP reduced contractility, effect reversed to positive inotropism by guanylyl cyclase blockade with ODQ (1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one), and abolished by PKG inhibition with KT5823, but not affected by Tempol. SNAP increased tissue cGMP at 100 M, but not at lower concentrations. Consistently, a cGMP analog also reduced cardiac contractility. Finally, SNAP at 1 mu M increased the level of S-nitrosylation of various cardiac proteins, including the ryanodine receptor. This study demonstrates the biphasic role for NO in cardiac contractility in a given preparation; furthermore, the differential effect is clearly ascribed to the signaling pathways involved.

In this study we examined expression of a subunit mRNA and exon 5 splicing in the developing mouse brain. Expression levels of Scn1a, Scn2a

and Scn8a mRNAs increase postnatally, whereas Scn3a mRNA expression levels decrease. Scn1a mRNA contains only exon 5A, due to the absence of exon 5N in the mouse Scn1a gene. At birth, Scn2a is the only sodium channel a subunit mRNA that contains higher or equal amounts of the 5N isoform compared to the 5A isoform in most brain regions. In contrast, the predominant isoform of Scn3a and Scn8a mRNAs in the newborn mouse brain is 5A. 5N/5A ratios for each of the three mRNAs vary across brain regions, with cortex >= hippocampus>thalamus>cerebellum. In all brain regions and for all three a subunits, 5N/5A ratios gradually decrease with age, levelling at a value between 0.1 and 0.2. These findings ROCK inhibitor suggest potential involvement AZD1152 in vivo of common factors in the alternative splicing of exon 5 for all three transcripts, and that expression of these factors varies between brain regions and changes during development. Differences in the strength of exon 5N and/or exon 5A splice sites in Scn2a pre-mRNA as compared to Scn1a and Scn8a may underlie the observed differences in 5N/5A ratios in the three a subunit mRNAs. Crown Copyright (C) 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of IBRO. All rights reserved.”
“Axon degeneration is an early event

in many neurodegenerative disorders. In some, the mechanism is related to injury-induced Wallerian degeneration, a proactive death program that can be strongly delayed by the neuroprotective slow Wallerian degeneration protein (Wld(S)) protein. Thus, it Urocanase is important to understand

the Wallerian degeneration mechanism and how Wld(S) blocks it. Wld(S) location is influenced by binding to valosin-containing protein (VCP), an essential protein for many cellular processes including membrane fusion and endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation. In mice, the N-terminal 16 amino acids (N16), which mediate VCP binding, are essential for Wld(S) to protect axons, a role which another VCP binding sequence can substitute. In Drosophila, the Wld(S) phenotype is weakened by a similar N-terminal truncation and by knocking down the VCP homologue ter94. Neither null nor floxed VCP mice are viable so it is difficult to confirm the requirement for VCP binding in mammals in vivo. However, the hypothesis can be tested further by introducing a Wld(S) missense mutation, altering its affinity for VCP but minimizing the risk of disturbing other aspects of its structure or function. We introduced the R10A mutation, which weakens VCP binding in vitro, and expressed it in transgenic mice. R10AWld(S) fails to co-immunoprecipitate VCP from mouse brain, and only occasionally and faintly accumulates in nuclear foci for which VCP binding is necessary but not sufficient.

Mechanical circulatory support was used in 431 patients: 241 (9.5%) received ventricular assist devices, 171 (6.8%) underwent extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and 19 (0.8%) received intra-aortic

balloon pumps.

Results: Patients supported on ventricular assist devices had similar levels of hospitalization and intensive care use and less need for inotropic support (P<.0002) than had those not needing support. Five-and 10-year posttransplantation survival was better in patients receiving ventricular assist devices and patients not receiving mechanical circulatory support selleck screening library than in patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation or intra-aortic balloon pumping (P<.0001). Among mechanically supported patients, patients with a body surface area of less than 0.30 (odds ratio, 1.70; 95% confidence interval, 1.18-2.43) and those requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (odds ratio, 1.65; 95% confidence interval, 1.15-2.35) or intra-aortic balloon pumping (odds ratio, 1.91; 95% confidence interval, 1.02-3.56) had higher long-term mortality. The use of a ventricular assist device

at transplantation did not predict higher long-term, posttransplantation mortality.

Conclusions: Pediatric patients requiring a pretransplantation ventricular assist device have long-term survival similar to that of patients not receiving mechanical circulatory support. Early survival among patients undergoing extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and infants is poor, reinforcing the need for improvements in device design and physiologic management of infants and neonates.”
“Neuronal loss via apoptosis caused by Selleck Wortmannin various stimuli may be the fundamental mechanism underlying chronic and acute neurodegenerative diseases. A drug inhibiting neuronal apoptosis may lead to a practical Carbohydrate treatment for these diseases. In

this study, treatment with mecamylamine, a classical antagonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), prevented neuronal apoptosis induced by 75 mu M glutamate and by low potassium (LK) in cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) with EC50S of 35 and 293 mu M, respectively. Two other antagonists of nAChRs, dihydro-beta-erythroidine and tubocurarine, failed to inhibit these two kinds of apoptosis. Mecamylamine inhibited the NMDA (30 mu M)-evoked current and competed with [H-3]MK-801. Furthermore, two inhibiters of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway prevented LK-induced apoptosis. Mecamylamine reversed the phosphorylation levels of JNK and c-Jun as well as the expression of c-Jun caused by LK in a Western blot assay. In addition, the JNK/c-Jun pathway was not involved in glutamate-induced cell death of CGNs. Our results suggest that mecamylamine prevents glutamate-induced apoptosis by blocking NMDA receptors at the MK-801 site and LK-induced apoptosis by inhibiting the activation of the JNK/c-Jun pathway. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

7%, P = .005). Independent predictors of mortality were sepsis (odds ratio [OR], 3.6; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.2-10.7), renal insufficiency (OR, 3.3; 95% CI, 1.1-9.5), concomitant coronary artery bypass grafting (OR, 2.8; 95% CI, 1.1-7.0), and prosthetic valve endocarditis (OR, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.1-5.6). Survival at 1 and 5 years was 55% +/- 4% and 50% +/- 4%, respectively, and predicted by concomitant mitral

endocarditis PKA activator (OR, 3.2; 95% CI, 1.3-8.2), sepsis (OR, 2.7; 95% CI, 1.6-4.5), renal insufficiency (OR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.1-3.4), and age (OR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02-1.07). Endocarditis recurred in 15 patients (8.7%) at a mean of 1.8 +/- 2.4 years postoperatively (39 days to 6 years).

Conclusions: The surgical treatment of aortic root abscess remains a challenge with relatively high perioperative morbidity and mortality, although long-term survival is satisfactory. (J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2012; 143:332-7)”
“Background. In patients with major depressive disorder (MDD), functional neuroimaging studies have reported an increased activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during executive LY2874455 mw performance and working memory (WM) processing, and also an increased activation of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) during baseline conditions. However, the functional coupling of these cortical networks during WM processing is less clear.

Method. In this study, we used a verbal WM paradigm, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI) and multivariate statistical techniques to explore patterns of functional coupling of temporally dissociable dorsolateral prefrontal and cingulate networks. By means of independent component to analyses (ICAs), two components of interest

were identified that showed either a positive or a negative temporal correlation with the delay period of the cognitive activation task in both healthy controls and MDD patients.

Results. In a prefronto-parietal network, a decreased functional connectivity pattern was identified in depressed patients comprising inferior parietal, superior prefrontal and frontopolar regions. Within this cortical network, MDD patients additionally revealed a pattern of increased functional connectivity in the left DLPFC and the cerebellum compared to healthy controls. In a second, temporally anti-correlated network, healthy controls exhibited higher connectivity in the ACC, the ventrolateral and the superior prefrontal cortex compared to MDD patients.

Conclusions. These results complement and expand previous functional neuroimaging findings by demonstrating a dysconnectivity of dissociable prefrontal and cingulate regions in MDD patients. A disturbance of these dynamic networks is characterized by a simultaneously increased connectivity of the DLPFC during task-induced activation and increased connectivity of the ACC during task-induced deactivation.”
“Introduction: Tc-99m-Duramycin is a unique radiopharmaceutical that binds specifically to phosphatidylethanolamine (PE).

Kidney

International (2012) selleck inhibitor 81, 784-790; doi:10.1038/ki.2011.465; published online 18 January 2012″
“The yeast Yarrowia lipolytica has to develop dynamic metabolic adaptation mechanisms to survive within the cheese habitat. The availability of amino acids (AAs) is of major importance for microbial development and/or aroma production during cheese ripening. Using 2-D protein gel electrophoresis, we analyzed the adaptation mechanisms of Y. lipolytica for AAs limitation or supplementation in a batch culture containing lactate as a carbon source. Proteome analyses allow the identification of 34 differentially expressed proteins between the culture conditions. These analyses demonstrated that prior to the AAs addition, mainly proteins involved in the oxidative stress of the yeast were induced. Following the AAs addition, yeast cells reorganize their metabolism toward AAs catabolism and also generate a higher induction of proteins related to carbon metabolism and proteins biosynthesis. Using real-time

reverse transcription PCR, we re-evaluated the expression of genes encoding proteins involved in these processes. The expression levels of the genes were in accordance with the proteomic results, with the up-regulation of genes encoding a branched-chain amino Lonafarnib supplier transferase BAT2, a pyruvate decarboxylase PDC6 and an Hsp70 protein SSZ1 involved in protein biosynthesis. A volatile compound analysis was also performed, and increased production of dimethyldisulfide from methionine and 3-methyl-butanal Tyrosine-protein kinase BLK from leucine was observed in media supplemented with AAs.”
“In the central nervous system, angiotensin II (AngII) binds to angiotensin type 1 receptors (AT(1)Rs) to affect autonomic and endocrine functions as well as learning and memory. However, understanding the function of cells

containing AT(1)Rs has been restricted by limited availability of specific antisera, difficulties discriminating AT(1)R-immunoreactive cells in many brain regions and, the identification of AT(1)R-containing neurons for physiological and molecular studies. Here, we demonstrate that an Agtr1a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) transgenic mouse line that expresses type A AT(1)Rs (AT1aRs) identified by enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) overcomes these shortcomings. Throughout the brain, AT1aR-EGFP was detected in the nuclei and cytoplasm of cells, most of which were neurons. EGFP often extended into dendritic processes and could be identified either natively or with immunolabeling of GFP. The distribution of AT1aR-EGFP cells in brain closely corresponded to that reported for AngII binding and AT1aR protein and mRNA. In particular, AT1aR-EGFP cells were in autonomic regions (e.g.

Neuropsychopharmacology (2010) 35, 929-937; doi:10.1038/npp.2009.195; published online 2 December 2009″
“3-(2,4-Dimethoxybenzylidene)-anabaseine (DMXB-A) is a partial agonist at alpha 7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and is now in early clinical development for treatment of deficits

in neurocognition and sensory gating in schizophrenia. During its initial phase 2 test, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies were conducted to determine whether the drug had its intended effect on hippocampal inhibitory interneurons. Increased hemodynamic activity in the hippocampus in schizophrenia is found during many tasks, including smooth pursuit eye movements, VX-770 solubility dmso and may reflect inhibitory dysfunction. Placebo and two doses of drug were administered in a random, double-blind crossover design. After

the morning drug/placebo ingestion, subjects underwent fMRI while performing a smooth pursuit eye movement task. Data were analyzed from 16 nonsmoking patients, including 7 women and 9 men. The 150-mg dose of DMXB-A, compared with placebo, diminished the activity of the hippocampus during pursuit eye SP600125 in vivo movements, but the 75-mg dose was ineffective. The effect at the 150-mg dose was negatively correlated with plasma drug levels. The findings are consistent with the previously established function of alpha 7-nicotinic receptors on inhibitory interneurons in Protein kinase N1 the hippocampus and with genetic evidence for deficits in these receptors in schizophrenia. Imaging of drug response is useful

in planning future clinical tests of this compound and other nicotinic agonists for schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology (2010) 35, 938-942; doi:10.1038/npp.2009.196; published online 2 December 2009″
“The mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system is implicated in the processing of the positive reinforcing effect of all drugs of abuse, including nicotine. It has been suggested that the dopaminergic system is also involved in the aversive motivational response to drug withdrawal, particularly for opiates, however, the role for dopaminergic signaling in the processing of the negative motivational properties of nicotine withdrawal is largely unknown. We hypothesized that signaling at dopaminergic receptors mediates chronic nicotine withdrawal aversions and that dopaminergic signaling would differentially mediate acute vs dependent nicotine motivation. We report that nicotine-dependent rats and mice showed conditioned place aversions to an environment paired with abstinence from chronic nicotine that were blocked by the DA receptor antagonist alpha-flupenthixol (alpha-flu) and in DA D(2) receptor knockout mice. Conversely, alpha-flu pretreatment had no effect on preferences for an environment paired with abstinence from acute nicotine.

As these abnormal activations are frequent in hallucinating patients, the here described volume increase of HG might be interpreted as compensatory plastic adaptations of the contralateral regions. We suggest that this volume increase of HG is caused by Silmitasertib order the symptomatology and not by the underlying disorder of schizophrenia. Copyright (C) 2009 S. Karger AG, Basel”
“The treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), a combination of three or more antiretroviral drugs, suppresses viremia below the clinical limit of detection (50 HIV-1 RNA copies/ml),

but latently infected resting CD4(+) T cells serve as lifelong reservoirs, and low-level viremia can be detected with special assays. Recent studies have provided evidence for additional reservoirs that contribute to residual viremia but are not present in circulating cells. Identification of all the sources of residual viremia in humans may be difficult. These discoveries highlight the need for a tractable model system to identify additional viral reservoirs that could represent barriers to eradication. In this study, simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) were treated with four antiretroviral drugs to develop an animal model for viral suppression during effective HAART. Treatment

led to a biphasic decay in viremia and a significant rise in levels of circulating CD4(+) T cells. At terminal infection time points, the frequency of circulating resting CD4(+) T cells HKI272 harboring replication-competent virus was reduced to a low steady-state level similar to that observed for HIV-infected patients on HAART. The frequencies of resting CD4(+) T cells harboring replication-competent virus in the pooled head lymph nodes, gut lymph nodes, spleen, and peripheral blood were reduced relative to those for untreated SIV-infected animals. These observations

closely Carteolol HCl parallel findings for HIV-infected humans on suppressive HAART and demonstrate the value of this animal model to identify and characterize viral reservoirs persisting in the setting of suppressive antiretroviral drugs.”
“Background/Aims: Several linkage studies demonstrated that different chromosomal regions are involved in the susceptibility to bipolar disorder. In particular, some genome scans evidenced the role of chromosome 12. For this reason, our group chose this chromosome for a preliminary genome scan on a sample of 137 Italian sib pairs, including at least 1 bipolar subject. Methods: The analyses were carried out by means of DNA extracted from whole blood. DNA samples were genotyped by 19 simple tandem repeat markers (microsatellites). Starting from the genetic data, we performed two-and multipoint linkage analyses (both parametric and nonparametric) by means of Easy Linkage plus package (version 5.05).

Psychological symptoms were assessed by questionnaires. Shock pain decreased significantly during counter-irritation in the controls AZD6244 mw (P<0.001) but not in IBS patients (P=0.52). Similarly, RIII-reflex amplitude declined during counter-irritation in the controls (P=0.009) but not in IBS patients (P=0.11). Furthermore, pain-related anxiety increased during counter-irritation in IBS patients (P=0.003) but not in the controls (P=0.74). Interestingly, across all subjects, counterirritation analgesia was positively correlated with RIII-reflex inhibition (r=0.39, P=0.04) and negatively with pain-related anxiety (r=-0.61, P<0.001). In addition, individual

differences in counter-irritation analgesia were predicted independently by the

modulation of RIII responses (P=0.03) and by pain catastrophizing (P=0.01), with the latter mediating the effect see more of pain-related anxiety. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that pain inhibition deficits in female IBS-D patients depend on two potentially separable mechanisms reflecting: (1) altered descending modulation and (2) higher-order brain processes underlying regulation of pain and affect. (C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Purpose: Repair of bulbar strictures using anastomotic techniques may cause sexual complications, while 1-side graft urethroplasties may not be sufficient to provide an adequate lumen in narrow strictures. We evaluated the urinary and sexual results of a 2-sided dorsal plus ventral graft urethroplasty by preserving the narrow urethral plate in tight strictures.

Materials and

Methods: Between 2002 and 2010, 105 men with bulbar strictures underwent dorsal plus ventral graft urethroplasty. The results are reported in a homogeneous group of 73 of 105 cases in which buccal mucosa was used as Cyclin-dependent kinase 3 a graft with findings after 1 year or more of followup. The urethra was opened ventrally, and the exposed dorsal urethra was incised in the midline to create a raw area over the tunica albuginea where the first graft was placed dorsal-inlay. Thereafter the urethra was augmented by the ventral-onlay second graft and the spongiosum was closed over itself. Successful urethral reconstruction was defined as normal voiding without the need for any postoperative procedure. Postoperative sexual dysfunction was investigated using a validated questionnaire.

Results: Mean followup was 48.9 months and mean stricture length was 3.3 cm. Of these 73 cases 64 (88%) were successful and 9 (12%) were treatment failures with re-stricture. Furthermore, of 49 of 73 cases who were preoperatively sexually active, none reported postoperative erectile impairment and all were satisfied with their sexual life.

In addition, we evaluated the effect of these four D3 dopamine receptor Bindarit ic50 selective compounds for their effect on a) spontaneous locomotion and b) coordination and agility using a rotarod apparatus. We also used a cylinder test to assess the effect Of L-dopa on spontaneous and independent use of each of the rat’s forelimbs in the presence or absence of test compound. The results of these studies suggest that substituted phenylpiperazine D3 dopamine receptor selective compounds are potential pharmacotherapeutic agents for the treatment Of L-dopa-associated dyskinesia in patients with Parkinson’s Disease. (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd.”
“Affective

nicotine withdrawal symptoms are of major motivational significance in contributing to relapse and continued tobacco use; thus, it is important to understand the molecular and receptor-mediated mechanisms that mediate affective withdrawal behaviors. Previous work using the conditioned place aversion (CPA) model has shown that nicotine withdrawal is associated with a negative affective state, and place aversion to previously neutral environmental stimuli represents a motivational component in the maintenance of drug use. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of genotype, sex, and age and to extend previous studies examining the role

of various nicotinic receptor subtypes in the see more development of nicotine withdrawal aversion using the CPA model. Mice were chronically treated with nicotine and conditioned for two days with various nicotinic receptor

antagonists. The major findings showed that mecamylamine and dihydro-beta-erythroidine (DHPE), but not hexamethonium or methyllycaconitine citrate (MLA), precipitated significant aversion in the CPA model. This pharmacological data support our previous knockout mouse data suggesting that nicotine CPA is mediated by central beta 2-containing nicotinic receptors, but not alpha 7 nicotinic receptors. Further, we show that sex and age are contributing factors to the development of nicotine CPA. Overall, the results of our study provide some insight Cetuximab clinical trial into pharmacological and behavioral factors involved in the development of an aversive motivational component associated with nicotine withdrawal. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Nicotine, the main addictive substance in tobacco, interacts with muscle and neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) that are also localized in astrocytes. We studied electrical effects elicited by nicotine in cultured astrocytes from the CA1 area of the rat hippocampus. Nicotine elicited different types of responses: sustained inward currents, decaying inward currents, and biphasic responses (an outward, followed by an inward current). Nicotine showed two opposite effects, an increase or a decrease of astrocyte membrane conductance, when voltage ramps were applied during sustained inward currents.