Thus, further declines in GC mortality rates may require more intensive efforts for the prevention and control

of H. pylori infection and other risk factors, including tobacco and diet, as well as exposures associated with cancer of the cardia, such as reflux disease and obesity. Moreover, there is still the need for intervention to improve early diagnosis and management in high risk countries. Prevention of cardia cancers has become a priority Venetoclax in several regions. Apart from H. pylori infection, which is confirmed and widely accepted as the principal trigger of gastric carcinogenesis, diet plays an indisputable role in gastric carcinogenesis as well. High intake of salted, pickled or smoked foods, as well as dried fish and meat and refined carbohydrates significantly

increase the risk of developing GC, while fibers, fresh vegetables, and fruit are inversely associated with GC risk. A recent Cobimetinib meta-analysis, including eight epidemiologic studies, with a total of 53,729 subjects, confirmed an increased risk of GC with a “western/unhealthy” diet, rich in starchy foods, meat, and fats, in respect of a “prudent/healthy” diet, rich in fruits and vegetables (OR 1.51; 95% CI 1.21–1.89) [7]. Whether autoimmune gastritis is etiologically linked to H. pylori infection is a matter of discussion. In a large population-based study pepsinogen I and II, antibodies against H. pylori in general, the cytotoxin-associated gene A protein (CagA) and parietal cells were measured by ELISA in 9684 subjects aged 50–74 years [8]. Pepsinogen I < 70 ng/mL this website and pepsinogen I/II <3 were indicative of the presence of chronic atrophic gastritis (CAG). Antigastric parietal cell antibody (APCA) prevalence was examined in the overall population and according to sex, age, and H. pylori serological

status. APCA prevalence (19.5%) was strongly associated with CAG, and the association was highest with increasing severity of CAG. Furthermore, the association between APCA and CAG was stronger among H. pylori-negative subjects (OR = 11.3; 95% CI: 7.5–17.1) than among H. pylori-positive subjects (OR = 2.6; 95% CI: 2.1–3.3). Interestingly, the association between APCA prevalence and CAG was much stronger among subjects with a CagA-negative infection compared with subjects with a CagA-positive infection. These results suggest that H. pylori infection and APCA-mediated autoimmune response might, for the most part, be independent, distinct pathways, rather than causally related pathways leading to CAG. Assessment of APCA might be a useful complement to established markers (such as pepsinogens and H. pylori antibodies) in screening for CAG. Previous studies have reported that H. pylori eradication after endoscopic resection for early GC may prevent metachronous GC, while other studies are not in agreement [9, 10].