This review describes the development of oxidative stress, how it can be measured, the involvement of mitochondrial dysfunction and the molecular pathways that are altered, the role of oxidative stress in CKD pathogenesis and an update on the amelioration of CKD using anti-oxidant therapies. One of the key functions

of the kidneys is to filter waste products that build up in the blood. Renal failure determines that waste products are not removed completely or sufficiently. This can occur quickly (acute renal failure, or acute kidney injury) often as the result of ischaemia, toxins or mechanical trauma. More often, however, the development of renal failure is gradual and insidious, with resultant chronic kidney disease (CKD). It is often many years before noticeable loss of renal function occurs. People with CKD have a high risk of death Venetoclax purchase from stroke or heart attack, and CKD may also progress to total and permanent renal failure (end-stage renal disease). Dialysis or transplantation is then necessary, with loss of quality of life, decreased individual life expectancy and increased costs to health-care systems. This review article focuses mainly on patients developing CKD. Chronic kidney disease has increasing incidence and prevalence in developed and developing nations. The kidneys show

the greatest age-associated chronic pathology compared with brain, liver and heart,1 and one in six adults over 25 years of age has some degree of CKD,2 with incidence see more increasing with age. A study of almost 20 000 ethnic Olaparib research buy Chinese men and women greater than

20 years of age demonstrated that changes in renal function could predict longevity.3 The structural characteristics of CKD include increased tubular atrophy, interstitial fibrosis, glomerulosclerosis, renal vasculopathy and reduced renal regenerative capability. These characteristics may be caused, at least in part, by the gradual loss of renal energy through development of mitochondrial dysfunction and resultant, increasing, oxidative stress. Oxidative stress may be defined as a disturbance in regular cellular and molecular function caused by an imbalance between production of reactive species and the natural anti-oxidant ability of our cells. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species often act together to create a state of oxidative stress. ROS are arguably the most important of the free radicals in biological systems. A list of the common reactive species is found in Table 1. The main ROS are superoxide (O2-), the hydroxyl radical (OH-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Examples of the endogenous and exogenous sources of reactive species are listed in Table 2. Estimated levels of ROS within mitochondria are 5- to 10-fold higher than other cytosolic and nuclear compartments.