Thus, different cell populations coming from the draining area of peripheral LN were identified, and after antigen administration were analysed in more detail. Numerous studies focus on the presence of pLN for immune response induction. One study concerns the impact of the cervical LN (cLN) of rats in activation of the immune system after antigen was microinfused into the cerebrospinal

fluid [38]. It was shown that the cLN respond in an antibody producing manner for antigen which comes from the central nervous see more system, and furthermore, after removing the LN, the antigen-specific antibody titre in the serum was perceptably reduced. It was concluded that the LN is important for the induction of a humoral immune response to central nervous system antigens

[38]. After recognizing the cLN as the brain-draining LN, Phillips et al. hypothesized that the LN play a role in multiple sclerosis (MS) as well as in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the animal model for MS. MS is thought to be an organ-specific autoimmune disorder and/or a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system [39] (for more detail see [40]). Genetic risk factors [human leucocyte antigen (HLA) haplotypes] and also environmental factors (Epstein–Barr virus, smoking and sunlight Pembrolizumab purchase exposure) were identified in MS development [40]. Pathological demyelination of different brain areas (cerebrum, brain stem or spinal cord) with axonal destruction was found. So far, CD4+ T cells selleckchem and CD8+ T cells (adaptive immune system) have also been related to the disease, as well as natural killer (NK) cells, which belong to the innate immune system. All these cells were detected in higher numbers in the patients or specifically in the lesions [39,40]. Furthermore, anti-inflammatory therapies and immune modulation are beneficial to the disease process [39]. The deep and superficial cLN were removed, EAE was induced and a reduced enhancement of the disease was found. Different areas in the brain were analysed for EAE lesions and significant differences were found between LN-resected and LN-bearing rats [17]. It was concluded

that removing the LN leads to a break in the pathway of immune cells into the brain which reduces the lesions found normally in EAE. More than 10 years later this study was repeated and expanded by van Zwam et al., who were able to show variations at different stages of the disease (acute, chronic and chronic relapsing EAE) which seem to be cLN-dependent. Furthermore, they concluded that tolerance of antigen from the brain is not induced in the cLN [27]. Thus, they believe that the brain-draining LN could be a useful target for therapeutic strategies against MS. The effect of cLN dissection on immunoglobulin (Ig) production and S. pneumoniae colonization after nasal vaccination with pneumococcal polysaccharide was also analysed.