While, as always, results obtained in animals must be viewed with caution, the conservation of the immune system in vertebrates suggests that lessons from non-human models will often yield knowledge that is highly pertinent to the human condition. [16]. In the vast majority of cases, the animal

model that has been used to evaluate FVIII immune reactivity has been the haemophilic Torin 1 mw mouse. While haemophilia A dogs can develop inhibitors to their canine FVIII replacement therapy, the number of haemophilic dogs available to perform statistically robust studies is extremely limiting. Interestingly, in the Queen’s University haemophilic dog colony [17], where inhibitor prone dogs have been documented for the past 30 years [18], a clear genetic predisposition is evident. Nevertheless, while dog studies of FVIII immunity are infrequent, the dog model has been used recently to highlight the

potential of FVIII gene transfer for inducing tolerance to FVIII [19]. Finally, it should be noted that all haemophilia A dogs will develop a potent anti-FVIII immune response if infused with human FVIII concentrate and thus any long-term study of FVIII immunity in dogs should use the canine protein or transgene [20, 21]. 3-MA datasheet There are now several different mouse models of haemophilia A that have been used to investigate inhibitor development and treatment. The original FVIII

knockout mice [22] have been extensively studied and have been repeatedly been shown to develop a strong immune response to human FVIII infusions. The timing and magnitude of this reaction varies with the FVIII infusion protocol but evidence of anti-FVIII IgM and IgA antibodies develops after a few days and in most animals a potent anti-FVIII IgG response is present after three exposures [23]. There is evidence that the background strain of the mice influences the magnitude of the response, with C57BL/6 mice developing higher titre inhibitors [23]. As Selleckchem Sorafenib the incidence of the human anti-FVIII antibody response in the original FVIII knockout mice is >95%, recent efforts have been focused on the development of additional mouse models in which the incidence of inhibitors more closely approximates that seen in humans (i.e. ~30%). These efforts have resulted in the generation of at least three alternative mouse models to study FVIII immunogenicity with, in each instance, the application of a different strategy to reduce reactivity to human FVIII exposure. In the first of these models, the approach that has been taken is to delete the entire mouse MHC II locus and to introduce a single human MHC class II allele (DRB1-1501) into the existing haemophilia A mouse model [24]. This class II allele is associated with an increased likelihood of inhibitor development in humans.